Summary of Unifications in Europe: Italy and Germany

Unifications in Europe: Italy and Germany | Traditional Summary

Contextualization

After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Europe was reorganized to restore the balance of power and contain expansionist ambitions. However, this reorganization overlooked the rising nationalist sentiments in various regions. In Italy, the territory was fragmented into several states and controlled by foreign powers, such as the Austrian Empire. In Germany, over 30 independent states formed the German Confederation. These contexts of political fragmentation and foreign domination fueled a strong desire for unification and independence, driven by growing nationalist ideas.

The processes of unification in Italy and Germany, which took place in the second half of the 19th century, were marked by different approaches and historical figures. In Italy, unification was encouraged by leaders like Giuseppe Garibaldi, Count Cavour, and Victor Emmanuel II, who utilized both military campaigns and diplomatic maneuvers. In Germany, unification was primarily driven by Otto von Bismarck, known as the 'Iron Chancellor', who employed a 'blood and iron' policy to achieve his goals, culminating in the formation of the German Empire under Prussian leadership in 1871. These unification movements not only redrew the political map of Europe but also had lasting impacts on the configuration of modern states.

Historical Context of Italian Unification

Italian unification occurred during a period of intense political fragmentation and foreign domination. The Italian territory was divided into several independent states and dominated by foreign powers, such as the Austrian Empire, which controlled important regions like Lombardy and Veneto. This political fragmentation hindered the consolidation of a unified nationalist sentiment. However, nationalist ideas began to gain strength, inspired by revolutionary events in Europe and by the work of intellectuals like Giuseppe Mazzini, who advocated for a united and republican Italy.

The formation of secret societies like Young Italy, led by Mazzini, and the revolts of 1848 were important for disseminating nationalist ideas. Although these revolts were suppressed, they prepared the ground for future unifying actions. Starting in the 1850s, the Italian unification gained significant momentum with the leadership of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which, under the regency of Count Cavour, adopted a diplomatic and military approach to achieve unification.

Cavour established strategic alliances with other European powers, such as France, and led military campaigns against the Austrians, achieving important victories that allowed for the annexation of territories in northern Italy. Popular support and the participation of charismatic leaders like Giuseppe Garibaldi, who led the Thousand Expedition and conquered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, were crucial for advancing the unification process. In 1861, after the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy, Italian unification was practically completed, although territories like Rome and Venice were only incorporated later.

• Political fragmentation and foreign domination in Italy.

• Influence of nationalist ideas and the revolts of 1848.

• Leadership of the Kingdom of Sardinia and Cavour's strategies.

• Participation of Giuseppe Garibaldi and the Thousand Expedition.

• Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861.

Key Figures of Italian Unification

Italian unification was marked by the actions of several historical figures who played crucial roles in the process. Giuseppe Garibaldi is one of the most well-known, being a charismatic military leader who led the Thousand Expedition. His ability to mobilize volunteers and conduct bold military campaigns made him a popular hero and a symbol of Italian nationalism. Garibaldi managed to conquer the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, annexing it to the Kingdom of Sardinia and significantly contributing to the unification.

Count Cavour, in turn, was the political strategist behind unification. As Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia, Cavour used diplomacy to establish alliances with other European powers, such as France, and led military campaigns against the Austrians. His skill in negotiating and manipulating political events was crucial for the success of the unifying movement. Cavour also worked to modernize the economy and infrastructure of the Kingdom of Sardinia, preparing it for leadership in unification.

Victor Emmanuel II, the king of the Kingdom of Sardinia, also played an important role in unification. He supported Cavour's and Garibaldi's actions and, after the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861, became the first king of unified Italy. His leadership was fundamental in consolidating the new state and gaining international acceptance. Together, these figures formed a combination of military, strategic, and political leadership that was essential for achieving Italian unification.

• Giuseppe Garibaldi and the Thousand Expedition.

• Count Cavour and his diplomatic and military strategies.

• Victor Emmanuel II and his leadership as king of unified Italy.

Process of Italian Unification

The process of Italian unification involved a series of key events, military campaigns, and diplomatic alliances. Initially, the Kingdom of Sardinia, under Cavour's leadership, sought alliances with powers like France to confront Austrian dominance in northern Italy. Through the Austro-Sardinian War of 1859, Sardinia managed to annex Lombardy, taking a significant step towards unification.

Meanwhile, Giuseppe Garibaldi led the Thousand Expedition in 1860, a military campaign that started from the city of Genoa with around a thousand volunteers. Garibaldi was able to conquer the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and subsequently handed over these lands to King Victor Emmanuel II, thus unifying a large part of Italian territory. Garibaldi's popularity and military charisma were fundamental to the success of this campaign.

Finally, in 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed, with Victor Emmanuel II as its first king. However, the unification was still not complete. Rome, controlled by the Pope and protected by French troops, and Venice, under Austrian control, were still outside the new kingdom. Rome was incorporated in 1870, after the withdrawal of French troops, and Venice was annexed in 1866, after the Austro-Prussian War. These events marked the conclusion of Italian unification.

• Austro-Sardinian War and annexation of Lombardy.

• Thousand Expedition and conquest of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

• Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861.

• Incorporation of Rome in 1870 and Venice in 1866.

Process of German Unification

German unification was led by Prussia and its chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, who used a combination of diplomacy and war to achieve his goals. After the Congress of Vienna, the German Confederation was composed of over 30 independent states. Bismarck sought to strengthen Prussia and unify the German states under its leadership, utilizing a 'blood and iron' policy.

The first significant step was the Duchies War in 1864, where Prussia, allied with Austria, defeated Denmark and annexed the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Next, Bismarck provoked the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, resulting in Austria's defeat and the dissolution of the German Confederation. This allowed Prussia to create the North German Confederation, excluding Austria and consolidating its dominance over the northern states.

The final event in the unification process was the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. Bismarck skillfully manipulated the political context to provoke a conflict with France, uniting the German states against a common enemy. The Prussian victory in the war led to the proclamation of the German Empire in 1871 at the Palace of Versailles, with King Wilhelm I of Prussia being crowned as the Kaiser of the new empire. Therefore, German unification was a process marked by Bismarck's diplomatic and military skill, which used strategic wars to achieve unification under Prussian leadership.

• Leadership of Otto von Bismarck and his 'blood and iron' policy.

• Duchies War and annexation of Schleswig and Holstein.

• Austro-Prussian War and creation of the North German Confederation.

• Franco-Prussian War and proclamation of the German Empire in 1871.

To Remember

• Italian Unification: Historical process of the 19th century that resulted in the formation of the Kingdom of Italy, uniting various independent states under a single nation.

• German Unification: Historical process of the 19th century that led to the creation of the German Empire, uniting the German states under Prussian leadership.

• Giuseppe Garibaldi: Italian military leader who played a crucial role in the unification of Italy, leading the Thousand Expedition.

• Count Cavour: Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia, a political strategist who led Italian unification through alliances and military campaigns.

• Victor Emmanuel II: King of the Kingdom of Sardinia and the first king of unified Italy after the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861.

• Otto von Bismarck: Chancellor of Prussia, known as the 'Iron Chancellor', who led German unification through diplomacy and war.

• Wilhelm I of Prussia: King of Prussia and first Kaiser of the German Empire after its proclamation in 1871.

• Thousand Expedition: Military campaign led by Giuseppe Garibaldi in 1860, which resulted in the conquest of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

• Wars of Independence: Military conflicts in Italy that contributed to the unification of the country, including the Austro-Sardinian War.

• Duchies Wars: Conflict of 1864 where Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark, resulting in the annexation of Schleswig and Holstein.

• Austro-Prussian War: Conflict of 1866 between Prussia and Austria, which resulted in the creation of the North German Confederation.

• Franco-Prussian War: Conflict of 1870-1871 between Prussia and France, which led to the proclamation of the German Empire.

• Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy: Act of 1861 that officially unified Italy under the reign of Victor Emmanuel II.

• Proclamation of the German Empire: Act of 1871 that officially unified the German states under the reign of Wilhelm I of Prussia.

• Nationalism: Political idea advocating for the creation of nation-states based on common cultural and ethnic identities.

• Congress of Vienna: Conference held in 1815 to reorganize Europe after the Napoleonic Wars, maintaining the balance of power.

Conclusion

The processes of unification in Italy and Germany were landmark events of the 19th century that led to the formation of strong and independent nation-states. In Italy, leaders like Giuseppe Garibaldi, Count Cavour, and Victor Emmanuel II played crucial roles in military campaigns and diplomatic strategies that resulted in the unification of the country in 1861, although the incorporation of Rome and Venice occurred later.

German unification, led by Otto von Bismarck, was characterized by a combination of diplomacy and war. Through conflicts such as the Duchies War, the Austro-Prussian War, and the Franco-Prussian War, Bismarck was able to consolidate Prussian leadership over the German states and proclaim the German Empire in 1871. Bismarck's diplomatic and military skill was fundamental to the success of this process.

Understanding these unification processes is essential to grasp the formation of the political map of modern Europe and the enduring impacts of these transformations. The historical figures involved and their strategies offer valuable lessons on leadership, nationalism, and the construction of nation-states. This knowledge is relevant not only for European history but also for analyzing processes of unification and fragmentation in other regions of the world.

Study Tips

• Review the key events and figures using a timeline to visualize the sequence of occurrences.

• Read historical documents and additional texts about the Italian and German unifications to deepen knowledge about each figure and event.

• Watch videos and documentaries about the unification of Italy and Germany to complement the study with visual resources and different perspectives.